home
***
CD-ROM
|
disk
|
FTP
|
other
***
search
/
TIME: Almanac of the 20th Century
/
TIME, Almanac of the 20th Century.ISO
/
1920
/
20tot
< prev
next >
Wrap
Text File
|
1994-02-27
|
17KB
|
358 lines
<text>
<title>
(1920s) The Totalitarians
</title>
<history>
TIME--The Weekly Newsmagazine--1920s Highlights
</history>
<link 07902>
<link 00066><article>
<source>Time Magazine</source>
<hdr>
The Totalitarians
</hdr>
<body>
<p> [The World War, and the destruction, disruption and shattering
of ideals that accompanied whole new political systems and
organizations. The abysmal conduct of the war by Imperial Russia
led to the overthrow of the Czarist autocracy and its
replacement, first by an ineffectual democratic regime and then
in November 1917 by the triumph of Communist Revolutionary
Vladimir Lenin. The following years of "War Communism," with the
widespread bloodshed of a civil war and the deprivation and
starvation caused by militant policies toward industry and the
peasants, impoverished Russia and struck fear in hearts across
Europe.
</p>
<p> After the war's end, revolution and revolt shook many of the
states of Europe. Communist uprisings in Germany and Hungary
were quickly put down, but other movements professing quite
different ideologies but employing the same techniques came to
power in Turkey and Hungary, developed political clout in
Austria and even got up a struggle in Italy.
</p>
<p> Benito Mussolini, one-time Socialist Party leader and great
admirer of Lenin, nevertheless came to find National Socialism,
with its deeply emotional appeal to patriotism and the glorious
and romantic past, its love of flags, insignia, uniforms and
action, more to his liking. The Socialists had moved into the
political vacuum that followed the war in the impoverished,
pitiably governed Italy of King Vittorio Emmanuel II, pushing
for labor reform and taking over local governments. Mussolini's
party, founded in 1921, formed action squads (Fasci di
Combatimento) that undid Socialist gains by force while the
authorities looked the other way. It culminated in the 1922
march on Rome by 40,000 Fascist "blackshirts" and Mussolini's
accession to national political power. He played his cards
skillfully and in the beginning, at least, avoided most of the
excesses of Leninism.]
</p>
<p>(JULY 2, 1923)
</p>
<p> Proportional representation was introduced by Nitti four years
ago. Under that system a political party is entitled to as great
a percentage of seats in the Chamber of Deputies as its numbers
bear to the electorate; a party that gets 40% of the votes gets
40% of the seats, etc. Italy has many political parties and
under this system the Catholic Party held the balance of power
while the Fascisti and Nationalist combined only held 50 seats
out of 430.
</p>
<p> So Mussolini has decided that proportional representation is
a good thing, but only for the minority. He has proposed that
Italy be considered as a single district. The party getting the
largest vote gets two-thirds of the seats, the other third to
be divided proportionally among the other parties. Under this
scheme, the Fascisti Party might have only one-third of the
votes, but get two-thirds of the seats.
</p>
<p>(DECEMBER 24, 1923)
</p>
<p> All Italy resounded with rumors as the reasons which induced
Signor Benito Mussolini to suspend the Parliamentary session.
It was stated that the King had refused Mussolini's demand for
the extension of his dictatorship. This rumor, as were most of
the others, was speedily denied. Mussolini made a great secret
of his future plans.
</p>
<p> That Premier Mussolini contemplated ending the dictatorship
and risking his power upon the decision of the electorate, is
meaningless. Fascism as a political theory is not really popular
in Italy, but the Fascisti with Mussolini at their head are at
the zenith of their popularity. The difference is that their
means of acquiring power have not been condoned by a large
number of Italians; but that the results obtained by them, from
almost every point of view, have been deserving of unstinted
praise from the nation. By virtually discarding the outward
accoutrements of his dictatorial power, Mussolini can disarm his
opponents while holding their favor, and so overshadow the
Giolittists and the Radicals. As for the Catholic Party, it was
thought likely that they will support the Fascisti, the
resignation of Don Sturzo pointing to the contrary.
</p>
<p>(JANUARY 14, 1924)
</p>
<p> The fullpowers which made Premier Benito Mussolini Dictator of
his country, came to an end with the passing of the old year.
</p>
<p> Did the people cheer and clap? No! There was little enthusiasm
and much dread evinced at the thought of a return to
parliamentary government. Thousands of people in thousands of
letters and telegrams urged the Premier to "carry on" as
Dictator.
</p>
<p> Benito remained silent and inscrutable.
</p>
<p>(APRIL 14, 1924)
</p>
<p> The first election under the new electoral law took place on
April 6. There was no doubt of the outcome. The Facisti won. Two
days before the election, Benito, who cast the first vote in
Milan, issued a bulletin to his Fascisti:
</p>
<p> "Blackshirts, you can have faith in me as the inflexible,
severe, implacable defender of our revolution. I say to you,
defend what you have already helped me to achieve by
participation now, even if shedding your blood is necessary. We
will begin again toward a second victory."
</p>
<p> Fascisti lists of candidates named 356 men, the precise
maximum of Deputies any party can get into Parliament under the
new law. Comparatively little violence was reported. Opposition
spellbinders were moved on by the police...All voters received
the following letter from the Fascisti:
</p>
<p> Dear Friend:
</p>
<p> We notice that you have not voted yet, and as we would be
sorry if your name should be included among those who have
abstained, we beg you to go and vote at once without waiting for
the last minute. Feeling certain that we have done you a favor
in thus recalling you to your duty, we cordially salute you.
</p>
<p> Thus gently reminded of their civic duty and the Fascist
cudgels and castor oil, panic stricken electors rushed to the
polls to "vote the right way." More than 6,000,000 voters--over
50% of the electorate--turned out--a high record for Italy.
</p>
<p> [This relatively amiable modus operandi came to an end after
the kidnap-murder in 1924 of Giacomo Matteotti, millionaire
Socialist deputy and prominent opponent of Fascism. As weeks,
then months passed without action against Matteotti's killers,
the level of political noise and violence rose steadily.]
</p>
<p>(JULY 7, 1924)
</p>
<p> The black shirt, it has been frequently alleged, was adopted
by the Fascisti on account of its utilitarian color. Premier
Benito discovered, however, that certain kinds of spots show up
most plainly, and to the quiescent but intense discomfiture of
thousands of Fascisti, he ordered the first general wash of
black shirts. The stain which Benito was endeavoring so nobly
to remove from the Black Shirts (the Fascisti) was made by the
supposed murder of Deputy Giacomo Matteotti by some Fascisti.
</p>
<p> The whole story has now come to be known as the "Matteotti
Affair," and with that affair Benito was over-busy during the
past week. With angry shouts from the Opposition ringing in his
ears, with the stench of political dissatisfaction offending his
nostrils and with sympathy paraded for Matteotti torturing his
vision, Benito set to work to clear up the situation in his own
terse way. He made the following speeches:
</p>
<p> At a Council of Ministers, he referred to his decision to
remain in office and added: "I believe that in that way I will
best serve the interests of Italy, which must be preserved from
the shock and unrest which would certainly accompany a Cabinet
crisis at this moment." Benito's speech was to the effect that
he saw no reason why the Fascist Government should resign
because it had suffered from the regrettable Matteotti affair.
</p>
<p> The parties of the Opposition were not to be quieted by
Benito's promises of reform. They met in plenary session to damn
Fascicmo, to lay the blame for the Matteotti affair at the door
of the government, to demand the abolition of Fascist militia,
to ask in veiled language for Benito's resignation, to state
that they would not attend Parliament again "as long as the
present conditions prevail."
</p>
<p>(JANUARY 12, 1925)
</p>
<p> It was clear that the Government was sick to death of the
Opposition's attacks, that the Opposition was weary of the
Government's talk without action, that the Italian people were
fed to the teeth with both the Government decided on action. A
rumor had reached it that its enemies were arming. On that
pretext, eleven newspapers were seized in Rome, Milan, Turin;
many homes of prominent Opposition leaders were searched.
</p>
<p> There followed savage attacks by Communists upon Fascisti all
over the country. In 48 hours, 17 people were hurt, 5 mortally
wounded, 3 killed. Premier Mussolini appealed for order.
</p>
<p> The blazing fires of Mussolini's wrath were kindled. At the
re-opening of the Chamber of Deputies, the Premier appeared as
a man possessed with the devil. The Government benches resounded
with the thumps from his large, white hands. His heavy face was
red with fury, his eyes flashed like a thousand daggers in the
sunlight, his voice sounded like the bellow of a bull as he
turned toward the Fascist deputies and roared:
</p>
<p> "The Opposition described us as an army of bandits encamped
in Italy. We have swallowed their insults and allowed them to
call us brigands and assassins. Now before the Chamber, before
the whole nation and before God I alone assume full personal,
political, moral and historical responsibility for everything
that has occurred in Italy. If Fascism is an association of
malefactors then let it be known that I am head of this
association of malefactors."
</p>
<p> The Premier then reminded the Chamber that the murder of
Matteotti had taken place after one of his (Mussolini's)
greatest parliamentary victories in which he had invoked the
goddess of national conciliation. "Even my enemies allow," he
challenged, "that I am gifted with some small amount of
intelligence, with much courage and with supreme disregard for
filthy lucre. Please spare me the insult of believing me so
stupid as to have ordered that crime to be committed."
</p>
<p> "The Opposition believed that Fascism was dead because on
some occasions I have found it necessary to punish it. But let
them remember that if I had employed in enflaming Fascism a
hundredth part of the energy I have employed in restraining it,
then indeed there would not be one single enemy of Fascism from
one end of Italy to the other."
</p>
<p> With a magnificent gesture the Premier ended his speech:
</p>
<p> "The Government, however, is sufficiently strong to destroy
the Aventine opposition entirely. I solemnly bind myself within
48 hours of this speech to clear up the political situation."
</p>
<p> [It was No More Mr. Nice Guy: The Opposition press was banned,
the Opposition leaders sequestered on a remote island, the
Matteotti trial ended--more than 15 months later--in a
whitewash. Mussolini began a systematic assault on Italians'
civil, political and economic rights.]
</p>
<p>(OCTOBER 19, 1925)
</p>
<p> An agreement has been made between the Italian Confederation
of Industry (representing practically all Italian employees) and
the Confederation of Fascist Trade unions, to the effect that
in all employer-employee disputes the two Confederations are to
regard each other as having the sole right to represent
respectively all Italian employers and all Italian workingmen.
</p>
<p> By this agreement the Socialists, who for 30 years have
assumed to themselves the right to champion and defend the
working class, are ruled out of practically all labor disputes.
The Fascists declare that the measure will put an end to the
Socialists' attempts to start a Marxian class war, and will
bring about the realization of the Fascist ideal of class
collaboration.
</p>
<p> The Mussolini Cabinet approved a bill providing that
henceforth the Mayor of Rome and the mayors of all Italian
municipalities of less than 5,000 inhabitants will be superseded
by officers appointed by the Central Government. The Fascisti
assert that this "reform" is made necessary by the fact that
Italians are frequently swayed by passion at local elections,
and do not return to office such able men as the Central
Government would set over them.
</p>
<p>(JULY 12, 1926)
</p>
<p> "I am like the animals. I can feel the future as it
approaches. Some instinct guides and warns me. My blood speaks!
I must listen to my blood." Thus Signor Mussolini is wont to
explain the promptings of his extraordinary political
intuition--promptings which he has ever translated into action
with disconcerting speed. Last week these sanguinary omens may
be presumed to have fired his brain afresh.
</p>
<p> I. Italian employers are empowered at once and until further
notice to lengthen the working day of their employees by one
hour, while paying them the same daily wage as heretofore.
</p>
<p> II. Italian newspapers are forbidden to print editions larger
than six pages, from which must be stricken all news of crime,
sport, the arts, literature. News of other nations than Italy
must be cut to a skeletonized resume.
</p>
<p> III. After Nov. 1, all gasoline imported into Italy must be
mixed with a fixed proportion of Italian alcohol.
</p>
<p> IV. Builders are forbidden to erect luxurious private houses
of any sort, must confine themselves to public buildings and to
dwellings for workmen, the lesser bourgeoisie.
</p>
<p> V. Restaurateurs and vintners are prohibited from selling
anything after 10 p.m., from opening until further notice any
new premises whatever for the sale of food or beverages. All
bread must hereafter contain at least 15% of non-white flour.
</p>
<p>(NOVEMBER 15, 1926)
</p>
<p> Premier Mussolini, apparently reacting to the seemingly
boundless devotion of his followers, called his cabinet together
and issued a series of decrees which the official Fascist press
hastened to deplore as "too mild."
</p>
<p> Decrees Summarized: 1) The Premier will appoint from the
fascist militia the personnel of courts martial which will
hereafter deal according to wartime military law with all who
are charged with "political crimes"; 2) The death penalty
(heretofore abrogated) will be revived in the case of traitors,
rebels and persons who attempt the life of the Premier, King or
Crown Prince; 3) Further curtailment of the already drastic
restrictions on Italian emigration passports, which now make it
virtually impossible for others than Fascists to leave the
country; 4) Dissolution of all parties opposed to Fascism, and
suspension of all opposition newspapers; 5) Creation of a
special Fascist political police, virtually a Tsarol "Cheka."
</p>
<p> Premier Benito Mussolini took over one more cabinet post (his
seventh), the Ministry of Interior, last week, in order that he
might personally control the new campaign against his
adversaries, a major part of which will fall within the scope
of this department.
</p>
<p>(MAY 2, 1927)
</p>
<p> What is the essential doctrine of Fascismo? It is direct,
constructive, continuous action by the People under the guidance
of the State. This gospel of action, dynamic, propulsive, was
expounded last week by Signor Benito Mussolini in a great
document designed as the ground plan on which the new social
order must arise. Fascists hailed the proclamation as their
Charter of Labor, as the first magna charta guaranteeing to a
people not rights but duties...
</p>
<p> Substitute "work" for "duties" and the meaning gradually
unfolds. Man does not want to labor; but, since he must, it is
a kind of boon to guarantee him the certainty of work to do.
</p>
<p> "We must abandon the great phrase of Liberty," said Dictator
Mussolini years ago, and added, "Fascismo has already stepped,
and, if need be, will quickly turn around to step once more over
the more or less putrid body of the Goddess Liberty."
</p>
<p> In a word, all bargaining between employer and employed will
be collective by compulsion, with the people (represented by the
State) as compulsory arbiter.
</p>
<p> [Looking back from the 1980s at Italian Fascism, it is easy
to under-estimate Mussolini and remember only the grotesque
caricature of the World War II years. But in the 1920s he was
a formidable and widely feared force in European affairs,
despite the fact that his brand of National Socialism seemed to
be composed more of rhetoric and real-politik than ideology; he
was admired by many for having mobilized the energies of the
once lackadaisical Italians and "having made the trains run on
time."]</p>
</body>
</article>
</text>